Working abroad, investing to foreigncountries and shopping for exotic items seems usual or even essential to most of us today. It is difficult to imagine life nowadays in a world where each country would have to consume homemade goods only, come up with new technology, etc. Only a few centuries ago the world integration of markets and cross-border movements of goods began. However, the process of globalization has neither been consistent nor gradual. With the start in the first half of the 19th century; the convergence of the world prices and markets tended to grow until the dramatic backlash during the interwar period and then eventually began to increase after WW1. It dramatically improved in the late 20th century and outperformed the pre-war period. Evidently, the world’s financial circumstances,as well as the forces promoting globalization in the late 1900’s were considerably different from those a century ago. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the distinctions between the two periods.
The process of globalizationin the late 20th century was faster than that before WW1 because trade was a larger part of world incomein the 20th century thanit was a hundred years ago. The table below demonstrates the share of world GDP that constitutes international exports in percentage points.
Merchandise Exports/World GDP (%) | |||
Year | % | Year | % |
1820 | 1.0 | 1950 | 5.5 |
1870 | 4.6 | 1973 | 10.5 |
1913 | 7.9 | 1990 | 12.7 |
1929 | 9.0 | 2007 | 20.4 |
Source:Maddison (2001) updated using WTO (2008).
Throughout the period of more than a hundred years, from 1820 to 1929, the amount of exports increased nine times, growing from 1.0 to 9.0. Despite the backlash during the war period when it plummeted to 5.5; the general trend of the merchandise exports was increasing. Since 1973, when it was 10.5, it has doubled, constituting more than a fifth of world GDP in the beginning of the 21st century. Consequently, the more GNP depends on trade, the more initiative there is for expansion and market integration.
Throughout the period of more than a hundred years, from 1820 to 1929, the amount of exports increased nine times, growing from 1.0 to 9.0. Despite the backlash during the war period when it plummeted to 5.5; the general trend of the merchandise exports was increasing. Since 1973, when it was 10.5, it has doubled, constituting more than a fifth of world GDP in the beginning of the 21st century. Consequently, the more GNP depends on trade, the more initiative there is for expansion and market integration.
First of the features contributing to the expansion of globalization is transportation costs. The cheaper it is to deliver a good to the consumer, the more attractive the trade looks as the producer gets higher profit. In the early 19th century a significant reduction in the costs of transportation began along with the industrial revolution. Such amenities as steam and electricity that were founded in the 18th[i] century were adopted and used broadly. Technologies like railway, steamship, factories and telegraph made the communication and transportation faster and persuaded the development of international trade. The introduction of steamships could be viewed as the most significant improvement as it was the only means of cross-continental trade. Increasing carrying capacity of the ships facilitated industrial production. The table below illustrates the changes in prices of shipping from 1759 to 2000.
Real Cost of Ocean Shipping | |||
1759 | 298 | 1950 | 80 |
1830 | 287 | 1980 | 53 |
1870 | 196 | 2000 | 21 |
1910 | 100 |
Source: Harley (1988); Kaukiainen (2003).
The real cost of ocean shipping fell sharply by 66% from 298 in 1759 to only 100 in 1910. Further decline in prices was even more dramatic as the number halved from the beginning on the 20th century to 1980, reaching only 80. These improvements laid the foundations for economic specialization in different regions around the world and market integration. As food (grain) became tradable, the prices tended to equalize more across different continents.
One might argue that in the period after the WW2, transportation costs were no longer promoting globalization to such an extent that it did a century ago. Even though the change in the technology was not as remarkable, notable improvements were made which contributed to the decline of trade costs and therefore to greater integration. Firstly, the technology that had been around before the wars was enhanced:“During the last 30 years merchant shipping has actuallyundergone a revolution comparable to what happened in the late nineteenth century.”[ii], meaning that the prices declined. Also, new solutions in containerization eased the organization of trade. New branch of transportation was introduced –aerodynamics. In spite of relatively higher costs, air transportation tended to take over some share of the imports from shipping. Throughout the 22 year period, from 1974 to 1996, the share of good imported to the US via air more than doubled (from 8.8 to 19.0 present)[iii] and exports reached about a third. The new technology of the 20th century, superior to that of the 19th, encouraged trade as it lowered costs and also because travel time was reduced: “Even if transport costs have not fallen as dramatically as they did in the late 19th century,they have remained low. In addition, technological changes have expanded the array of deliverymechanisms and cut the time”[iv]. This had a positive effect on globalization as more goods such as fruit, flowers etc could be traded which lead to great price convergence.
Lowering transportation costs were some of the main reasons of market integration in the 19th century. No influential policies or treaties defining the rules of commerce among countries were signed. Only after the war period the legal organization of trade began. The policies that intended to minimize the barriers for trade were a significant boost as they were directed to both taxed and non-taxed trade.
The first step towards more globalized trade was the Bretton Woods conference. It took place in 1944, when the WW2 was coming to a conclusion. The goal of the meeting was to liberalize trade, achieve fiscal stability, fix exchange rates among trading countries and get out of the globalization backlash. The intention was to establish agreements on tariffs and trade as well as to create an exchange rate management system. The most substantial outcomes of the conference include ratification of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) and the creation of the International Monetary Fund(IMF). The former is a collection of rules that applies to market access equality and intends to guarantee subsidies on trade as well as low tariffs for goods produced in the OECD[v] countries. The table below displays the taxes that were laid on imports in percentage points of their value.
The real cost of ocean shipping fell sharply by 66% from 298 in 1759 to only 100 in 1910. Further decline in prices was even more dramatic as the number halved from the beginning on the 20th century to 1980, reaching only 80. These improvements laid the foundations for economic specialization in different regions around the world and market integration. As food (grain) became tradable, the prices tended to equalize more across different continents.
One might argue that in the period after the WW2, transportation costs were no longer promoting globalization to such an extent that it did a century ago. Even though the change in the technology was not as remarkable, notable improvements were made which contributed to the decline of trade costs and therefore to greater integration. Firstly, the technology that had been around before the wars was enhanced:“During the last 30 years merchant shipping has actuallyundergone a revolution comparable to what happened in the late nineteenth century.”[ii], meaning that the prices declined. Also, new solutions in containerization eased the organization of trade. New branch of transportation was introduced –aerodynamics. In spite of relatively higher costs, air transportation tended to take over some share of the imports from shipping. Throughout the 22 year period, from 1974 to 1996, the share of good imported to the US via air more than doubled (from 8.8 to 19.0 present)[iii] and exports reached about a third. The new technology of the 20th century, superior to that of the 19th, encouraged trade as it lowered costs and also because travel time was reduced: “Even if transport costs have not fallen as dramatically as they did in the late 19th century,they have remained low. In addition, technological changes have expanded the array of deliverymechanisms and cut the time”[iv]. This had a positive effect on globalization as more goods such as fruit, flowers etc could be traded which lead to great price convergence.
Lowering transportation costs were some of the main reasons of market integration in the 19th century. No influential policies or treaties defining the rules of commerce among countries were signed. Only after the war period the legal organization of trade began. The policies that intended to minimize the barriers for trade were a significant boost as they were directed to both taxed and non-taxed trade.
The first step towards more globalized trade was the Bretton Woods conference. It took place in 1944, when the WW2 was coming to a conclusion. The goal of the meeting was to liberalize trade, achieve fiscal stability, fix exchange rates among trading countries and get out of the globalization backlash. The intention was to establish agreements on tariffs and trade as well as to create an exchange rate management system. The most substantial outcomes of the conference include ratification of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) and the creation of the International Monetary Fund(IMF). The former is a collection of rules that applies to market access equality and intends to guarantee subsidies on trade as well as low tariffs for goods produced in the OECD[v] countries. The table below displays the taxes that were laid on imports in percentage points of their value.
Tariff Rates on Manufacturing Imports (%) | |||||
Country/Year | 1875 | 1913 | 1935 | 1950 | 1999 |
Germany | 5 | 17 | 21 | 26 | 4.6 |
UK | 0 | 0 | 17 | 23 | 4.6 |
USA | 45 | 44 | 48 | 14 | 3.0 |
Source: Crafts (2000)
From the late 19th century, the highest tariffs were laid on the goods imported to the USA (45%). From the middle of the 20th up to 1999 a steep decline took place. GATT has been later followed by the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1995 and other joint commerce agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Europe's Maastricht Treatythat had similar pursuits. Evidently, the introduction of them made the final reduction; as the tariff rates fell about five times and constituted less that 5%. The later was an organization (IMF)which’s objective was “stabilizing international exchange rates and facilitating development”[vi]. They both affected the expansion of trade by making it more insured due to stable exchange rates. This also increased foreign investment.According to statistics, of the tariffs that were cut more than 45,000 tradable items related to “one-half of world trade or $10 billion in trade”[vii] so the link with market integration was obvious.
Along with the considerable reduction of the trade tariffs in the 20th century other obstacles for the trade expansion were reduced. In the late 19th century slow information flows were also a barrier for trade. With the emergence of telephone connection and finally internet a new era for trade began. It became more time efficient to make orders or negotiate with business parents. Also, the knowledge of the goods available and their prices became accessible to any consumer. Even retail trade became possible and widespread across different countries and continents.
The improvements in the information and transportation technologies in the late 20th century prompted trade that was generally impossible internationally in the 19th century – the trade of services. The main components of it include tourism, education and finance. An eager traveller may choose services of an airline or a tourism company from various countries therefore the prices of these services are quite similar around the world (data – plane tickets) despite different living standards in various countries. Competition between the universities has also increased as distant learning is rather popular. This has a positive effect on the quality of education. Furthermore, the possibility of choosing between financial services around the world also stimulated improvements in the banking system and direct investment.
Both in the end of the 19th century and in the late 20th century connectivity and interdependence of the world’s markets and business was increasing. Globalization played a large role in the economic development of countries which opened free international transfer of capital, services and goods. However, the two periods differed in terms of the inducements for globalization. While the beginning of it was largely driven simply by advancing technology and falling transportation costs, the period after the WW2 was more complicated. Thanks to the treaties and policies discussed before, the reduction of the tariffs around the world persuaded trade significantly along with constantly improving technologies. Therefore it could be said that the main barrier preventing from absolute market integration became the expenditure for transportation, despite how low the costs are compared to those a century ago.
The improvements in the information and transportation technologies in the late 20th century prompted trade that was generally impossible internationally in the 19th century – the trade of services. The main components of it include tourism, education and finance. An eager traveller may choose services of an airline or a tourism company from various countries therefore the prices of these services are quite similar around the world (data – plane tickets) despite different living standards in various countries. Competition between the universities has also increased as distant learning is rather popular. This has a positive effect on the quality of education. Furthermore, the possibility of choosing between financial services around the world also stimulated improvements in the banking system and direct investment.
Both in the end of the 19th century and in the late 20th century connectivity and interdependence of the world’s markets and business was increasing. Globalization played a large role in the economic development of countries which opened free international transfer of capital, services and goods. However, the two periods differed in terms of the inducements for globalization. While the beginning of it was largely driven simply by advancing technology and falling transportation costs, the period after the WW2 was more complicated. Thanks to the treaties and policies discussed before, the reduction of the tariffs around the world persuaded trade significantly along with constantly improving technologies. Therefore it could be said that the main barrier preventing from absolute market integration became the expenditure for transportation, despite how low the costs are compared to those a century ago.
Autora: Ruta
[i] Steam invented by James Watt in 1765,
[ii]Lundgren, Nils-Gustav (1996), Bulk trade and Maritime Transport Costs
[iii]Bordo, M., Eichengreen, B. And Irwin, D. (1999) “Is Globalization Today Really Different that 100 Years Ago?”, NBER Working Paper No. 7195
[iv]Hummels, David(1999), Transportation Costs and International Integration in Recent History